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Table 2 Summary of findings

From: Reliability and measurement error of sensorimotor tests in patients with neck pain: a systematic review

Test

Pooled1

Test-retest

Reliability Index (95% CI), (rating of criteria for good reliability)

Quality of the evidence (modified GRADE) Reliability

Quality of the evidence (modified GRADE)

SDC (rating of criteria for good ME)

Quality of the evidence (modified GRADE) ME

Quality of the evidence (modified GRADE) ME

Craniocervical Flexion Test adapted (De Pauw ,2020) [42]

 

inter-rater

0.64 (0.33-0.82), (-)

+

Very Low

2.72 (?)

++

Low

Craniocervical Flexion Test adapted (De Pauw, 2020) [42]

 

test-retest

0.65 (0.35-0.83), (-)

+

Very Low

2.58 (?)

++

Low

Craniocervical Flexion Test muscle activation

 

test-retest

0.7 (0.39-0.86), (+)

+

Very Low

4.96 (?)

++

Low

Craniocervical Flexion Test muscle endurance

 

test-retest

0.9 (0.8-0.95), (+)

+

Very Low

2.49 (?)

++

Low

Neck flexor muscle endurance Test

x

inter-rater

0.75 (0.29-0.93), (+)

++

Low

6.38 to 31.88 (?)

++

Low

Neck flexor muscle endurance Test

x

test-retest

0.84 (0.68-0.92), (+)

+

Very Low

17.74 to 23.01 (?)

+

Very Low

Neck extensor muscle endurance Test

x

inter-rater

0.84 (0.69-0.92), (+) sic!

++

Low

   

Neck extensor muscle endurance Test

x

test-retest

0.84 (0.69-0.92), (+)

++

Low

2.05 to 71.51 (?)

+

Very Low

Scapula muscle endurance Test Standing

 

test-retest

0.67 (0.31-0.85), (-)

+

Very Low

30.21 (?)

++

Low

Scapular Holding Test adapted (summarized left and right)

 

inter-rater

0.54-0.63 (0.19-0.82), (-)

+

Very Low

3.02-3.3 (?)

++

Low

Scapular Holding Test adapted (summarized left and right)

 

test-retest

0.68-0.7 (0.41-0.86), (- to +)

+

Very Low

2.44-3.08 (?)

++

Low

Sternocleidomastoid strength (summarized left and right)

 

test-retest

0.95-0.97 (0.91-0.99), (+)

+

Very Low

4.63-5.04 (?)

++

Low

Isometric Muscle Strength Lower Trapezius (summarized left and right)

 

inter-rater

0.65-0.78 (0.28-0.91), (- to +)

+

Very Low

   

Isometric Muscle Strength Middle Trapezius, Rhomboid (summarized left and right)

 

inter-rater

0.33-0.59 (-0.07-0.82), (-)

+

Very Low

   

Maximal voluntary isometric contraction (six parameters summarized)

 

test-retest

0.76-0.91 (NA), (+)

+

Very Low

0.03-26.06 (?)

++

Low

Max isometric strength Flex outer torque Dorsal Head Force

 

test-retest

0.09 (NA-NA), (-)

+

Very Low

141.36 (?)

++

Low

Isometric strength Dynamometer

 

inter-rater

0.39-0.72 (-0.1-0.89), (- to +)

+

Very Low

   

Isometric strength (Dynamometer, Modified Sphygmomanometer, Multi Cervical Rehabilitation Unit, Neck strength measurement system)

x

test-retest

0.74-0.99 (0.47-1), (+)

+

Very Low

1.94-54.33 (?)

+ to ++

Very Low to Low

Flexion-relaxation ratio

 

test-retest

0.83 (0.67-0.92), (+)

+

Very Low

   

AROM visual estimation (six directions summarized)

 

inter-rater

0.42-0.82 (NA), (- to +)

+

Very Low

   

AROM Universal Goniometer (all directions)

x

inter-rater

0.66-0.82 (0.47-0.93), (- to +)

+ to ++

Very Low to Low

3.41-15.25 (?)

+ to ++

Very Low to Low

AROM Universal Goniometer (all directions)

x

test-retest

0.71-0.89 (0.5-0.97), (+)

+ to ++

Very Low to Low

2.22-12.2 (?)

+ to ++

Very Low to Low

AROM Universal Goniometer Rot (left and right summarized)

 

test-retest

0.31 (-0.12-0.64)2, (-)

+

Very Low

27.5 (?)

++

Low

AROM Electronic Goniometer (three directions summarized)

 

inter-rater

0.81-0.86 (0.62-0.94), (+)

+

Very Low

14.91-22.23 (?)

++

Low

AROM Electronic Goniometer (three directions summarized)

 

test-retest

0.89-0.92 (0.77-0.96), (+)

+

Very Low

11.28-16.58 (?)

++

Low

AROM Gravity Goniometer (eight movements summarized)

 

inter-rater

0.74-0.89 (0.26-0.95), (+)

+

Very Low

8.87-15.52 (?)

+ to +++

Very Low to Moderate

AROM Inclinometer (three directions summarized)

 

test-retest

0.41-0.75 (-0.16-0.89), (- to +)

+

Very Low

14.8-22.06 (?)

++

Low

AROM Digital inclinometer (six directions summarized)

 

inter-rater

0.73-0.89 (0.05-0.96), (+)

+

Very Low

   

AROM Digital inclinometer (six directions summarized)

 

test-retest

0.53-0.84 (-0.32-0.94), (- to +)

+

Very Low

7.45-17.52 (?)

++

Low

AROM Digital inclinometer EDI-320 (three directions summarized)

 

inter-rater

0.89-0.95 (0.77-0.98), (+)

+

Very Low

   

AROM Digital inclinometer EDI-320 (three directions summarized)

 

test-retest

0.93-0.96 (0.86-0.98), (+)

+

Very Low

   

AROM Gravity Inclinometer (four pooled directions summarized)

x

inter-rater

0.74-0.86 (0.38-0.95), (+)

+

Very Low

8.59-19.4 (?)

+

Very Low

AROM Gravity Inclinometer (four directions summarized)

 

test-retest

0.91-0.95 (0.85-0.97), (+)

+

Very Low

6.65-8.04 (?)

++

Low

AROM CROM device (six pooled directions summarized)

x

inter-rater

0.82 - 0.93 (0.73-0.97), (+)

+ to ++

Very Low to Low

10.26-18.02 (?)

+

Very Low

AROM CROM device (six pooled directions summarized)

x

test-retest

0.91-0.95 (0.68-0.98), (+)

+ to ++

Very Low to Low

3.6-11.36 (?)

++

Low

AROM Fastrak (six directions summarized)

 

test-retest

0.64-0.88 (NA), (- to +)

+

Very Low

6.54-18.63 (?)

++

Low

AROM Multi Cervical Rehabilitation Unit (six directions summarized)

 

test-retest

0.82-0.96 (0.66-0.98), (+)

+

Very Low

   

AROM OSI Spine Motion Analyser (six directions summarized)

 

test-retest

0.68-0.96 (NA), (- to +)

+

Very Low

5.13-9.12 (?)

+

Very Low

AROM Zebris (six directions summarized)

 

test-retest

0.81-0.86 (NA), (+)

+

Very Low

15.52-28.27 (?)

++

Low

AROM iPhone (six pooled directions summarized)

x

inter-rater

0.74-0.96 (0.39-0.98), (+)

+ to ++

Very Low to Low

4.1-9.67 (?)

+

Very Low

AROM iPhone (six pooled directions summarized)

x

test-retest

0.69-0.84 (0.43-0.96), (- to +)

+ to ++

Very Low to Low

2.86-12.5 (?)

+ to ++

Very Low to Low

AROM Android (four directions summarized)

 

inter-rater

0.9-0.92 (0.72-0.97), (+)

+

Very Low

   

AROM Android (four directions summarized)

 

test-retest

0.85-0.9 (0.61-0.96), (+)

+

Very Low

6.9-12.16 (?)

++

Low

AROM Android Rotation (left and right summarized)

 

inter-rater

0.17-0.48 (-0.98-0.8), (-)

+

Very Low

   

AROM Android Rotation (left and right summarized)

 

test-retest

0.13-0.52 (-1.42-0.82), (-)

+

Very Low

24.05-32.89 (?)

++

Low

Relocation Test (Rotation pooled, seven movements summarized)

x

test-retest

0.62-0.85 (0.32-0.93), (- to +)

+ to ++

Very Low to Low

3.33-4.16 (?)

+ to ++

Very Low to Low

The Fly (twelve parameters summarized)

 

test-retest

0.58-0.86 (0.38-0.86), (- to +)

+

Very Low

   

The Fly Overshoots (three level summarized)

 

test-retest

0.14-0.42 (-0.14-0.62), (-)

+

Very Low

   

Torsion Test (left and right summarized)

 

test-retest

0.58.0.71 (0.14-0.85), (- to +)

+

Very Low

2.77-4.43 (?)

++

Low

Figure of eight Test (six parameters summarized)

 

inter-rater

0.76-1 (0.62-1), (+)

+

Very Low

0.06-5.6 (?)

++++

High

Figure of eight Test (four parameters summarized)

 

test-retest

0.81-1 (0.64-1), (+)

+

Very Low

0.03-8.09 (?)

++++

High

Zigzag Test (six parameters summarized)

 

inter-rater

0.8-1 (0.6-1), (+)

+

Very Low

0.08-2.27 (?)

++++

High

Zigzag Test (four parameters summarized)

 

test-retest

0.95-1 (0.78-1), (+)

+

Very Low

0.03-1.64 (?)

++++

High

Smooth Pursuit Neck Torsion Test (diff) Amplitude 40°, Velocity 20°/s

 

test-retest

0.75 (0.44-0.81), (+)

+

Very Low

0.11 (?)

++

Low

Rod and Frame Test (three parameters summarized)

 

test-retest

0.74-0.9 (NA), (+)

+ to ++

Very Low to Low

   

Fast cervical rotation (five directions summarized)

 

test-retest

0.37-0.86 (-0.16-0.95), (- to +)

+

Very Low

0.3-91.47 (?)

++

Low

Fast cervical rotation Conjunct movements

 

test-retest

-0.07 (-0.54-0.45), (-)

+

Very Low

18.02 (?)

++

Low

Current perception threshold (nine parameters summarized)

 

test-retest

0.47-0.86 (0.08-0.93), (- to +)

+

Very Low

   
  1. Summarized Smallest and highest ICC from several tests, CI Confidence interval, SDC Smallest detectable change, ME Measurement error, AROM Active range of motion
  2. Criteria for good reliability: + (sufficient) if ICC or (weighted) Kappa at least 0.7; ? (indeterminate) if ICC or (weighted) Kappa not reported; - (insufficient) if ICC or (weighted) Kappa < 0.7.
  3. Criteria for good measurement error: + (sufficient) if smallest detectable change (SDC) or Limits of Agreement (LoA) or Coefficient of Variation (CV)*√2*1.96 < Minimal Clinically Important Change (MCIC); ? (indeterminate) if MCIC was not defined; - (insufficient) if SDC or LoA or CV*√2*1.96 >= MCIC. (37)
  4. Quality of evidence: High: we are very confident that the true measurement property lies close to that of the estimate of the measurement property; Moderate: we are moderately confident in the measurement property estimate: the true measurement property is likely to be close to the estimate of the measurement property, but there is a possibility that it is substantially different; Low: our confidence in the measurement property estimate is limited: the true measurement property may be substantially different from the estimate of the measurement property; Very low: we have very little confidence in the measurement property estimate: the true measurement property is likely to be substantially different from the estimate of the measurement property (38).
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