Table 3 Characteristics of the included studies

Bencke & Zebis (2011)

[38] Denmark

24 (12/12)

m: 23.1 ± 3.4

f: 22.7 ± 3.1

Second best division of Danish National Team Handball League

To examine sex differences in neuromuscular pre-activity during a side-cutting manoeuvre

Significantly lower pre-activity of the ST and BF in females than males. But no significant difference for any of the quadriceps muscles

DeMont & Lephart (2004) [39] USA

34 (17/17)

m: 22.5 ± 3.1

f: 20.1 ± 1.4

Recreationally active (aerobic and strength training 3 × per week)

To determine if the level of pre-activation of the gastrocnemius and hamstring muscles during dynamic activity (downhill walking and running) is affected by sex

Significantly higher activity level of the ST in females than males during walking downhill. No sex differences in the other muscles and no differences for any muscle during running

Deschenes et al. (2009) [40]

USA

20 (10/10)

m: 21.4 ± 0.8

f: 20.9 ± 0.2

Recreationally active (moderate level)

To examine whether men and women experience different adaptations to muscle unloading (1 week of muscle unloading -walking with a brace and crutches)

No sex differences in the pre-unloading phase. Significantly higher activity in males than in females after one week of unloading. And significant decline in EMG activity from pre- to post-unloading in females

Hanson et al. (2008) [24]

USA

40 (20/20)

m: 19.4 ± 1.4

f: 19.8 ± 1.1

NCAA division I level soccer players

To examine sex differences in lower extremity muscle activation between male and female soccer athletes during 2 side-step cutting manoeuvres (running and box-jump side-step cut)

Significantly higher activity in VL in females than males during both preparatory and loading phase of both cutting tasks. Significant increase from preparatory to loading phase for both sexes. Females showed a significantly greater Q:H coactivation ratio than males. No significant differences for the other muscles in both phases and tasks

Hart et al. (2007) [41]

USA

16 (8/8)

m: 19.1 ± 1.4

f: 22.0 ± 2.1

Division I soccer players

To evaluate sex differences in muscle activity while landing from a 100 cm single leg forward jump

No sex differences for VL, BF or MG was found

Kim et al. (2016) [42]

USA

40 (20/20)

m: 20.45 ± 1.57

f: 20.05 ± 1.23

Physically active (university population)

To assess whether preparatory and reactive knee stiffening strategies are affected differently in males and females exposed to sex-biased cognitive loads

No sex differences were observed

Lee et al. (2014) [43]

USA

43 (21/22)

m: 25.0 ± 3.7

f: 24.5 ± 3.6

Recreationally active

To investigate sex differences in pivoting neuromuscular control during strenuous stepping tasks and proprioceptive acuity under weight-bearing

Significantly higher entropy of time-to-peak EMG in the MG during MIPT and MEPT, and in the LG during MIPT in females

Myer et al. (2005) [27]

USA

20 (10/10)

m: 25.5 ± 2.7

f: 22.3 ± 3.7

Physically active (students; sport activity at least 1 × per week)

To evaluate sex differences in quadriceps muscle activation strategies when performing a manoeuvre (side-step exercise) that mimics the high ACL injury risk position

No sex differences in normalized VM or VL. But the VM-to-VL ratio was significantly decreased in females compared to males

Padua et al. (2005) [28]

USA

21 (11/10)

m: 27.81 ± 4.35

f: 24.10 ± 3.75

Recreational experience in jumping/landings sports (basketball, volleyball, soccer)

To compare leg stiffness, muscle activation, and joint movement patterns between men and women during 2-legged hopping at two different rates

Significantly higher quadriceps activity in females than males in both hopping conditions. The quadriceps activity was significantly higher in the loading phase for both females and males. No significant difference in hamstrings activity. No significant differences between sexes for the gastrocnemius activity; but there was a significant difference between both phases and frequencies. Significantly higher Q:H ratio in females—quadriceps activation was 2 × higher than hamstrings for both hopping conditions

Palmieri-Smith et al. (2007) [44] USA

21 (10/11)

m: 23.6 ± 3.8

f: 24.0 ± 5.2

Recreationally active

To examine the relationship between the peak valgus knee angle and preparatory muscle activity while performing a single-leg forward hop

A higher peak VKA was associated with increased preparatory VL and lateral hamstring activity, while a lower VKA was associated with increased preparatory VM activity in females. When both sexes or males alone were considered, no such results were found

Rozzi et al. (1999) [45]

USA

34 (17/17)

m: 20.4 ± 1.7

f: 18.9 ± 0.9

Collegiate basketball and soccer players

To examine knee joint laxity and the neuromuscular characteristics of male and female athletes (task during EMG measurement: a single-leg jump from a step)

Significantly greater peak amplitude in the first contraction after landing in females than males for BF. No significant differences between groups for the other muscles were found

Shultz et al. (2001) [20]

USA

64 (32/32)

m: 20.5 ± 1.2

f: 19.4 ± 1.0

Intercollegiate athletes (soccer and lacrosse)

To examine whether muscle response times and activation patterns in the lower extremity differed between men and women in response to a rotational knee perturbation while standing in a single-leg, weight-bearing stance

Females responded significantly faster than males for both ER and IR. This difference appeared to be primarily due to shorter latency in quadriceps activation in females. No significant sex-by-muscle group or muscle-side interactions were found

Smith et al. (2009) [46]

USA

26 (12/14)

over both sexes: 24.5 ± 2.7

Recreationally active

To investigate the effects of fatigue and sex on frontal plane knee motion, EMG amplitudes, and GRF magnitudes during a bilateral drop-jump landing

No significant sex differences observed. Also, no differences for fatigue by sex interaction. Only a significant difference between pre-fatigued and fatigued condition

Urabe et al. (2004) [22]

Japan

15 (7/8)

m: 22.2 ± 0.4

f: 22.0 ± 1.0

National collegiate basketball league

To determine the activation level of the quadriceps and hamstring muscles during a vertical jump (bilateral) with a single-leg landing

Significantly higher activity of the VM in females at knee flexion angle of 15–45°. No significant differences in overall mean hamstring activity at the same knee flexion range. But when the knee flexion angle was 15°, 20° and 25°, hamstring activity was significantly lower in females

Wu et al. (2016) [47]

Ireland

44 (22/22)

m: 23.7 ± 4.2

f: 23.5 ± 3.4

Recreationally active (no strength training or competitive sports within the last 5 years)

To concurrently assess the effect of age on neuromuscular and mechanical properties in 24 young and 20 older males and females

Significantly lower VL activation in older compared to young participants and in females compared to males. BF co-activation was significantly higher in females than males but with no difference between young and old participants. But BF co-activation was similar for both males and females and for young and old after adopting subcutaneous fat as a covariate